Biofuels: Feeding the Earth or Feeding the Engine?

Biofuels, often touted as green energy sources, are stirring up significant environmental and ethical concerns globally. This article is a republication from JSTOR Daily, exploring the dual-edged impact of biofuels. Previous contributions on JSTOR Daily have highlighted the potential of biofuels to revolutionize industries—from sustainable aviation (Will You Ever Fly in a Plane Propelled by Plants and Seeds?), to reintroducing native prairie landscapes (Switchgrass: An Old Grass Gets a New Use), and utilizing abundant seaweed deposits (The Great Seaweed Invasion). Biofuels derived from sources like corn, soy, rapeseed oil, palm oil, woody biomass, and algae are promoted as transitional fuels on the path to net-zero carbon emissions. Despite their promising appearance, the production and use of biofuels can conflict with principles of environmental justice and sustainable land use, raising questions about food security, carbon sinks, and equitable resource distribution. Can biofuel development align with a regenerative economy while respecting environmental and social justice?

Environmental scientists Jörn P. W. Scharlemann and William F. Laurance present a nuanced view of biofuels’ ecological impacts, noting that “not all biofuels are beneficial when their full environmental impacts are assessed,” with key examples like corn, sugarcane, and soy performing poorly in many contexts. Studies by researchers Rainer Zah, Mireille Faust, Jürgen Reinhard, and Daniel Birchmeier examined the lifecycle impacts of 26 biofuels, revealing that nearly half, including corn ethanol, have higher aggregate environmental costs than traditional fossil fuels (ScienceDirect). These impacts include high emissions of nitrous oxide from fertilizer use, which contributes to greenhouse gas levels and ozone depletion, and significant land conversion for biofuel production, threatening natural habitats and biodiversity.

Economist Daniela Russi emphasizes that biofuel crops’ low yields necessitate large-scale monocultures, relying heavily on fertilizers, pesticides, and industrial farming techniques. This model leads to environmental degradation, reducing biodiversity, altering hydrological systems, and depleting soil organic carbon. Scharlemann and Laurance argue that despite biofuels’ intended sustainability, their large-scale production demands substantial land and labor, further straining ecosystems and contributing to greenhouse gas emissions along the supply chain. The transportation of raw materials to processing plants often involves significant fossil fuel use, diminishing biofuels’ overall sustainability benefits.

Beyond environmental impacts, biofuel production raises concerns about land stewardship and justice, particularly in postcolonial contexts. As energy farming expands, it often displaces traditional agriculture, impacting communities reliant on staple crops like corn, wheat, and sugar. Russi terms this phenomenon “ethanolinflation,” where increased competition for agricultural resources drives up food prices, making essential staples unaffordable for many.

Moreover, biofuel agriculture often formalizes land tenure, disrupting customary and ancestral land-use practices. Research by Laura German, George C. Schoneveld, and Pable Pacheco in Malaysia, Ghana, and Indonesia highlights land conflicts arising from biofuel projects, particularly regarding compensation and the recognition of traditional land rights. Customary land users are frequently excluded from negotiations and uninformed about land clearings until after agreements are finalized.

To balance biofuels’ benefits against their environmental and social costs, a shift toward more sustainable and equitable production models is necessary. Joyce Tait, chair of the Nuffield Council on Bioethics Working Party on Biofuels, advocates for stronger ethical standards in the industry, ensuring that biofuel development does not compromise human rights such as access to food, water, and land. Biofuel production should prioritize sources that do not compete with food crops, such as algae or agricultural residues, and encourage small-scale, localized operations that minimize resource inputs and enhance community benefits.

A sustainable biofuel industry also requires fair trade practices and equitable compensation for labor and intellectual property rights. Policymakers must ensure that the gains from biofuel development are fairly distributed, supporting inclusive economic growth and environmental stewardship.

While biofuels offer a promising alternative to fossil fuels, their production must be carefully managed to prevent further environmental and social injustices. A comprehensive approach that addresses ecological, economic, and social dimensions can unlock biofuels’ potential to contribute to a sustainable and equitable energy future.